The emphasis was on intellectual and cultural differences, while physical and racial characteristics were not as popular. The diversity of different nations was positively valued and seen as a valuable contribution to a world that was colourful and varied. This is evident from research by cultural and religious historian . '"This aspect can help to find ways to positively interpret one's own nation in a time of rising nationalism, without falling into patterns that exclude others," Smits says.
The Comeback of Nationalism
Nationalism is making a comeback worldwide. After a period of international thinking, leaders are increasingly advocating for prioritising the interests of their own country. "Often, this nationalism is connected with religion. Examples include the nationalism of Trump, Putin, and Orban. Hindu nationalism in India also fits within this trend,” explains Smits.
Religion and Nationalism Connected
Smits’ research is embedded in a study of nationalism: how did elites search for ways to cooperate on a national level? Smits states: “My research makes it clear that Protestants, over time, gave an increasingly important place to the nation in their thinking. The idea that one is also a global citizen gradually faded into the background. The theologians I studied came up with theories that were meant to describe society and culture from a Christian point of view. Not just politics, but also art, science, social life, and even the church were placed in this national framework.”
The German Nation
Smits explains: “In addition to this theoretical way of thinking about the nation, the concrete nation itself also played an increasingly significant role. In research on the history of the church, for example, the development was represented in transitions from one country to another, with developments explained through differences in national character.”
The research further shows that nationwide cooperation in Germany between 1820 and 1870 was far from self-evident. Smits continues: “Universities and church administrations were tied to the states, which had existed for a longer period of time. Through journals and associations, Protestants tried to organise themselves on a national level. This led to certain hierarchies, where some regions or ways of thinking were able to connect with this national Protestant world, while others were excluded.”
After 1870
After the unification of Germany in 1870, there was less room for differences. Smits says: “In various ways, attempts were made to link Christian faith with nationalism. This is important for understanding where the highly aggressive form of Christian nationalism came from, which would become defining during the First and Second World Wars. Through various channels, these thinkers also played a role in the emergence of later connections between Christianity and nationalism. Theologians from the 19th century are still studied, even in circles where Christian nationalism is particularly strong.”
International Differences Valued
The research also makes it clear that nationalism between 1820 and 1870 placed relatively more emphasis on intellectual and cultural differences between nations, while physical and racial characteristics were less prominent. Furthermore, the diversity of nations was, in most cases, seen as something positive. The pursuit of differentiating national differences was viewed as a way to contribute to a globally diverse world. Smits concludes: “This aspect can help, in a time of rising nationalism, to find ways in which one’s own nation can be positively interpreted, without falling into patterns that exclude others.”